MAN Human being,
whether male or
female.
The biblical
teaching on man
begins with a
right notion
concerning God.
The biblical
perspective of
anthropology
(i.e., the study
of man) is
centrally
displayed in the
context of an
elevated
theology (i.e.,
the study of
God). A high and
reverent view of
God leads to a
noble and
dignified view
of man, whereas
a poorly
developed
concept of God
often produces a
distorted
perspective on
man. Hence, man
may be viewed
more importantly
than he ought,
or man may be
seen less
important than
is biblical.
Either view is
subbiblical. The
place to begin a
study of man
(which in this
article is used
as a generic
term for both
male and female
human beings) is
with a view of
God, his
Creator.
Man’s Origin
Against the
naturalistic,
materialistic
theories of
origins, the
biblical view
starts with the
assertion that
the eternal God
has created man,
the most
significant of
all his created
works. It is not
necessary for
one to subscribe
to a particular
chronological
scenario for
God’s work in
the creation of
man. Some
Christians
believe the
Bible teaches a
closed
chronology in
Genesis 1 made
of six literal
24-hour days
(cf. Gn 1:5, 8,
13, etc.), with
the stunning,
sudden
appearance of
man coming
perhaps just
some 6,000 years
ago (cf. the
chronologies
associated with
but not limited
to Archbishop
James Ussher,
Annales,
1650–58). Some
who hold this
general
viewpoint
(sometimes
called creation
science) extend
the creation of
man to about
10,000 years
ago, based on a
view of some
elasticity in
the chronologies
of Genesis 5 and
11.
Others believe
the texts of
Genesis 1 and 2
may be
interpreted far
more broadly to
speak of a most
remote antiquity
for the creation
of man
(extending to
millions of
years). They
argue that
process (under
God’s control
and direction)
may have played
a significant
role in God’s
creative work.
This viewpoint
is best termed
progressive
creationism, and
is to be
contrasted with
theistic
evolution, in
which God is
usually viewed
as initiating
the process but
having little
involvement once
the processes
are in motion.
In the former
approach, the
Hebrew term
“day” (yom) in
Genesis 1 may
refer to an
extended period
of time (e.g.,
the “day-age”
theory); thus,
the phrasing “an
evening and a
morning, the xth
day” may be a
literary device
to present
successive
scenes in the
creative works
of God through
the processes of
time.
Many Christians
find themselves
somewhere
between a
conservative and
a broad
chronology for
man’s origin.
Yet in spite of
individual
preferences, one
must give assent
to God’s
creative work in
producing man in
order to think
biblically about
man. The essence
of faith begins
in the words “I
believe in God
the Father
Almighty,
Creator of
heaven and
earth.”
Man is not only
God’s creation
but also the
pinnacle of his
creative effort.
Long before
modern precision
in such things,
the ancients
were aware of
man’s anatomical
similarities
with members of
the animal
kingdom. Yet
despite these
similarities,
the biblical
viewpoint never
places man on
the same level
as animals—man
is distinct, the
high point of
God’s creative
work, the apex
of his
handicraft. The
progression of
the created
things in
Genesis 1 is
climactic; all
of God’s created
work culminated
in his
fashioning of
man.
The distinct
behavioral
characteristics
of man include
language,
toolmaking, and
culture.
Distinct
experiential
characteristics
include
reflective
awareness,
ethical concern,
aesthetic urges,
historical
awareness, and
metaphysical
concern. These
factors
individually and
collectively
separate man
from other forms
of animal life.
Man is far more
than the “naked
ape” of some
modern
evolutionary
theories. But
sociology alone
does not suffice
to explain the
full nature of
man. That is the
subject of
divine
revelation.
While man bears
a continuity
with God’s
creation
(assumed in the
words of Gn 2:7,
being fashioned
from the dust of
the earth), man
is also distinct
from all that
precedes him
because God
breathed into
him the breath
of life so that
he became a
living soul
(2:7). Man was
created by God
as male and
female (1:27),
meaning that
what is said
generally of man
must be said of
both the male
and the female,
and that the
truest picture
of what it means
to be human will
be found in the
context of man
and woman
together. The
commands to
multiply and
exercise
sovereignty over
the earth were
given to both
sexes as shared
responsibility.
Similarly, it is
man as male and
female that
rebelled against
God and bears
the consequences
of that primeval
sin in the
postfall world,
and it is man as
male and female
that Christ came
to redeem (cf.
Gal 3:28). At
the same time,
the words “male”
and “female”
denote true
distinctions.
Many perceived
gender
differences may
be culturally
conditioned, yet
the prime sexual
distinctions
between male
(Hebrew, zakar,
“the piercer”)
and female
(Hebrew, neqeba,
“the pierced”)
are divinely
intended. It
takes both male
and female to
exhibit the full
image of God
(see Gn 1:27).
Indeed, the most
stunning
biblical
assertion
respecting man
is that God made
man in his
image. Of no
other creature,
not even the
angels, is such
a statement
found. The words
“in God’s image”
in Genesis
1:26–28 are the
basis for the
psalmist’s
paraphrase in
Psalm 8:5, “for
you have made
him to lack but
little of God”
(literal
translation;
“lower than the
angels,”
Septuagint
translation).
The meaning of
the phrase “the
image of God”
(Latin, imago
Dei) has been
the subject of
much debate.
Some have
thought the
phrase to refer
to a physical
representation
of God, but this
is doubtful in
that God is
spirit (cf. Jn
4:24). Others
think the phrase
refers to man’s
personhood,
which
corresponds to
the personality
of God (having
intellect,
sensibilities,
and will). Such
qualities of man
may be found in
God’s image;
however, these
varied aspects
of personality
are also shared
by other members
of the animal
kingdom and are
not unique to
the human
species.
The basic
meaning of the
word “image”
(Hebrew, tselem)
is “shadow,”
“representation,”
or “likeness.”
The image of God
in man reveals
God’s
perspective of
man’s worth and
dignity as a
representation
or a shadow of
himself in the
created world.
Ancient kings of
Assyria were
known to have
physical images
of themselves
placed in
outlying
districts as a
reminder to
those who might
be prone to
forget that
these areas were
a part of the
empire. So God
has placed in
man a shadow of
himself, a
representation
of his presence,
in the world
that he has
made.
This view of
God’s image in
man seems to be
confirmed by the
immediate
context in
Genesis 1. Man,
created in God’s
image, is to
have dominion
over all of
God’s other
works (Gn 1:26;
see also Ps
8:5). Further,
as a
representative
of the Creator,
man is to
respond to him.
Jesus’ assertion
of the
spirituality of
God results in a
response of
worship in
spirit and in
truth (Jn
4:21–24).
Man’s Nature One
may tend to
think of man in
parts, but the
biblical
emphasis is on
man as a whole.
Debates continue
on the
tripartite
(threefold)
nature of man
(cf. 1 Thes
5:23)—spirit,
soul, and
body—as against
a bipartite
(twofold) nature
of man, material
and immaterial.
Though the Bible
does seem to
support both
positions, the
most important
issue respecting
the nature of
man is his unity
rather than the
number of his
parts. Hence, a
biblical view of
man begins in
the assertion
that one is a
person made up
of physical and
nonphysical
properties. In
the words of
Karl Barth, the
human person is
“bodily soul, as
he is also
besouled body.”
There is no
person in body
only, nor can
one easily think
of a bodiless
spirit as a
person, except
in a temporary,
transitional
state. The
Hebrew term
nephesh, often
translated
“soul,” is best
rendered
“person” in most
contexts. The
Hebrew word
ruach (“breath,”
“wind,”
“spirit”) and
the Greek words
pneuma
(“spirit”) and
psuche (“soul”)
often speak of
the immaterial
part of man.
This is no less
real than the
physical. A
purely material,
physical view of
man is
frightfully
deficient. At
the same time,
an overemphasis
on the spirit
and a deemphasis
on the physical
is neither
realistic nor
balanced. One
may say, “I am a
person whose
existence is
presently very
dependent upon
my physical
body. But I am
more than body,
more than flesh.
When my body
dies, I still
live. When my
flesh decays, I
exist. But one
day I shall live
in a body again.
For the notion
of a disembodied
spirit is not
the full measure
of my humanity.
God’s ideal for
me is to live my
life in my [new]
body. So in hope
of the eternal
state, I believe
in the
resurrection of
the body and
life
everlasting.”
One cannot go
far in thinking
of the nature of
man from the
biblical vantage
point without
first facing the
problem of the
fall. Genesis 3
suggests that
unfallen man was
immortal, that
his powers of
sexual
reproduction
were not
originally bound
in the pain in
childbearing,
and that his
work was not
troubled by
reversals in
nature. After
the fall,
however, all was
changed: within
man himself,
between the male
and the female,
in his
interaction with
nature, and in
his relationship
with the
Creator.
As a result of
the fall, man
has become
profoundly
fallen, a
fallenness
extending to
every part of
his person. The
phrase “total
depravity” need
not mean that
one is as evil
as he or she
might be, but
rather that the
results of sin
affect one’s
whole being. At
the time, the
image of God in
man continues in
some way after
the fall,
providing the
divine rationale
for salvation
(cf. Rom 5). It
is essentially
because of God’s
estimation of
the intrinsic
worth of man
that the divine
justification of
salvation may be
maintained.
The old debate
between the
essential
goodness and the
evil disposition
of man finds its
quandary and
resolution in
the Genesis
account: God
made man to
consciously
reflect the
dignity and
nobility of the
Creator, yet
man, by his own
deliberate
rebellion,
turned against
his Creator and
continues,
except by God’s
grace, in the
ensuing sin that
marks his life.
This resultant
sin is both a
quality of being
in the fallen
person, as well
as numerous,
continuing acts
of pride and
selfishness.
Though the image
of God in man
was marred by
the fall, it may
be stimulated
anew by the
effective work
of the Spirit of
God as one comes
to newness of
life in Christ.
This gracious
work of God
brings personal
renewal,
restoration of
relationships
with others, and
fellowship with
God.
Man, then, who
was created good
by God, has
become evil by
his own devices,
yet in God’s
power he may
recapture the
good again. The
rediscovery of
what it means to
be fully human
is found in the
life of Jesus,
whose human life
is the new
beginning for
man. Hence,
Jesus is the new
Adam; in his
model there is a
new beginning
that replaces
the former
pattern.
Man’s Destiny A
biblical view of
man must include
a balanced
statement
respecting his
divine origin,
his rebellion
against the
grace of God,
his judgment,
and his prospect
for redemption
in the person of
the Savior Jesus
with the promise
of eternal life.
Man has a
beginning and
will live
forever. This
assertion is in
stark contrast
to naturalistic
theories of
origins and
destinies. One
of the most
deceptive
tendencies of
modern thought
is the concept
“coming to terms
with death.”
People with no
thought of God
and no hope for
eternity are
encouraging each
other to accept
the inevitable
decline and
demise of their
bodies as the
natural end to
human life. The
biblical notion
is that death in
man is not
natural at all.
Death is an
acquired trait,
not the natural
destiny of man.
Death may be
said of the body
but not of the
spirit. The
biblical
teaching is that
while the body
dies and decays,
the person lives
on in hope of a
renewed body.
Those who have
come to know
Christ go to be
with him when
their bodies die
(Phil 1:23) and
anticipate the
resurrection of
the body for
eternal life to
come (1 Cor
15:35–49). Those
who die apart
from Christ do
not cease to
exist but rather
are assigned an
eternal
existence of
conscious
knowledge that
they are
separated from
God and have
fallen short of
their destiny to
enjoy his
presence
forever. The
biblical
teaching on the
destiny of the
lost is quite
unpalatable for
modern man. Even
Christians who
have generally
high views of
biblical
inspiration may
find themselves
blanching at the
thought of
eternal
punishment of
the wicked. Yet
the biblical
doctrine of the
final judgment
of the wicked is
as well
established as
most teachings
in the Bible.
One of the most
dramatic truths
in Scripture
respecting the
nature of man is
to realize that
it was for man
that God
initiated the
salvation work
that led to the
incarnation of
the eternal son
of God. After
his resurrection
and ascension,
the Lord Jesus
Christ returned
to his eternal
position of
glory and
majesty in
heaven, where he
forever remains
the God-man. As
God, he shares
all the
attributes of
the Father and
the Holy Spirit,
and as man,
identifies with
man. He reveals
himself in a
physical body,
albeit the
resurrection
body, the
firstfruits of
the resurrection
of all who are
his. The
incarnation,
then, brought
about an eternal
change in deity.
Only a very high
view of the
worth of man
could have
brought God to
such a
fundamental
change in
himself. As the
writer to the
Hebrews states,
“Because God’s
children are
human
beings—made of
flesh and
blood—Jesus also
became flesh and
blood by being
born in human
form” (Heb 2:14,
NLT).
The final
measure of our
humanity is that
man was made to
worship God and
to enjoy him
forever. Such
thoughts are not
attributed to
any other
created being.
Even the angels,
who have
maintained their
perfect state
and who worship
the Father in
conscious bliss,
do not have
quite the same
relationship
with God as do
redeemed men
(Heb 2:16).
What is man? In
Christ, man is
all God means
him to be, in
majesty and
dignity, and in
joy before his
throne forever.
See also Image
of God; Man,
Natural; Man,
Old and New...
IMAGE OF GOD
Likeness to God,
the most basic
affirmation to
be made
concerning the
nature of human
beings from a
Christian
perspective.
Humans are
unique among the
creatures in
that they are
like God and
therefore able
to have
communion and
fellowship with
God.
Genesis 1:26–27
teaches that God
determined to
create man and
woman in his own
“image” and
“likeness” and
that they would
have dominion
over the animal
creation. The
two terms used
in the creation
account and
found also in
the NT convey
closely related
shades of
meaning, but the
difference
between them is
no longer
thought to be
theologically
significant.
Because Genesis
2:7 states
unambiguously
that man became
a living being,
the Bible does
not present the
view that a
previously
living creature
developed into a
human, nor does
it suggest that
the image of God
evolved from a
lower form of
life. The moment
the man and
woman became
living
creatures, they
were the image
of God. Both
male and female
share this
likeness to God
(Gn 1:27).
Other passages
that speak of
people being
created in the
image of God are
Genesis 5:1,
9:6, 1
Corinthians
11:7, and James
3:9. Ephesians
4:24 and
Colossians 3:10
refer to
humanity’s
redemptive
re-creation, but
the passages are
generally
regarded as
directly
relevant for an
understanding of
mankind’s
original
likeness to God.
Although
explicit
references to
humans as
expressing the
image of God are
comparatively
infrequent in
the Bible, the
truth itself
underlies the
whole relation
between God and
humans and is
therefore the
presupposition
of the entire
biblical
account.
The affirmation
in Genesis 1
that man and
woman were made
in the image of
God is not made
of any of the
other living
creatures. The
animals, the
fish, and the
birds do not
share this
privilege. It is
disputed whether
the angels are
in the image of
God, but certain
theologians so
view them
because they
find the image
to reside in
moral
righteousness.
However, there
is no explicit
biblical
statement to
this effect.
By virtue of his
creation from
the dust of the
ground, mankind
has an obvious
kinship with the
earth. It is not
strange,
therefore, that
the body, both
in its
constitution and
its functions,
shows
similarities
with other
earthly
creatures. But
humans are
unique in every
aspect of their
existence; not
some part of a
human or some
faculty of a
human, but a
human in his or
her wholeness is
the image of
God. The
biblical concept
is not that the
image is in man
and woman, but
that man and
woman are the
image of God.
However, as
man’s kinship
with the earth
is most clearly
visible in his
body, so the
image of God is
best seen when
humans are
viewed from the
perspective of
their
spirituality.
Theologians have
sought at this
point to
enumerate those
aspects of
spirituality
that define
humans and set
them apart from
the animal
creation. The
image of God is
then found to
reside in some
attribute or
combination of
attributes, such
as rationality,
will, freedom,
responsibility,
or the like.
Contemporary
theologians
prefer not to
enumerate
attributes, and
the Bible does
not set forth
the image of God
in this way.
Nevertheless, it
is the
personality of
humans that
separates them
from the animals
and is a
reflection of
the personality
of God. The
animals have
their existence
from God, but
humans have
their being in
God, and they
are his
offspring (Acts
17:28–29).
Another major
aspect of the
image of God
doctrine is
developed from
Ephesians 4:24
and Colossians
3:10. These
verses describe
the re-creation
of the believers
in the likeness
of God—in
righteousness,
holiness of the
truth, and true
knowledge. In
other words,
Paul declares
that the
redeemed are
re-created into
the image of God
as they are
transformed into
the image of
Christ, who
bears the
untainted image
of God. Just as
the fall into
sin was not
without its
effect on the
image of God, so
also redemption
from sin affects
humans as the
image of God.
Ephesians and
Colossians speak
of renewal in
the image of God
the Creator, but
other texts
become even more
specific in view
of the
mediatorial
office of
Christ.
Jesus Christ is
preeminently the
image of God (2
Cor 4:4; Col
1:15; Heb 1:3).
Frequently this
is understood
exclusively as a
reference to the
deity of Christ.
To see Christ is
to see the
Father (Jn
14:9). However,
in the passages
cited, it is the
incarnate
Mediator, the
last Adam, who
is at least all
that God
intended the
first Adam to
be. Incarnation
means that Jesus
is truly human,
and because he
is truly human,
he is truly the
image of God.
As the last Adam
and the Mediator
of the new
covenant, Jesus
brings his
people into
conformity with
his own image,
the image of the
Son of God (Rom
8:29). He who
became like his
brethren, in the
likeness of
sinful flesh,
destroys sin in
order that his
brethren might
reflect his own
glory. They are
changed into the
same image from
glory to glory
by the Spirit of
the Lord (2 Cor
3:18). The
believer is to
“put on Christ”
(Rom 13:14; Gal
3:27; cf. Eph
4:24; Col 3:10,
“the new nature”
in the image of
God), an action
also described
as the formation
of Christ in the
believer (Gal
4:19).
Conformity to
the image of
Jesus Christ is
achieved through
the process of
sanctification
that is
ultimately
completed at the
resurrection.
Only then is the
body changed
until it is
fashioned like
unto the
glorious body of
Christ (Phil
3:21).
Restoration in
the image of
Christ carries
beyond creation
in the image of
God, for the
image of the
earthly is then
exchanged for
the image of the
heavenly (1 Cor
15:49)...
MAN*, NATURAL
Expression
occurring in 1
Corinthians 2:14
(RSV mg). The
adjective
translated there
by “natural” is
also found in 1
Corinthians
15:44 (twice),
46; James 3:15;
and Jude 1:19.
This adjective
is related to
the Greek noun
usually
translated
“soul.” Its
meaning,
however, is
primarily
determined by
its various
contexts,
particularly in
1 Corinthians,
where all four
occurrences are
contrasted
pointedly with
“spiritual,” an
adjective
occurring
frequently in
the NT, mostly
in Paul’s
writings. In
almost every
instance it
refers to the
work of the Holy
Spirit. Applied
to things,
“spiritual”
means derived
from, or
produced by, the
Holy Spirit (the
law—Rom 7:14;
gifts—1 Cor
12:1;
blessings—Eph
1:3;
sacrifices—1 Pt
2:5). When it is
applied to
persons, it
means indwelt,
motivated, and
directed by the
Holy Spirit (1
Cor 2:15; 14:37;
Gal 6:1).
“Natural,” then,
when contrasted
with
“spiritual,”
generally
describes what
is devoid of or
in opposition to
the Holy Spirit
and his work. In
1 Corinthians
2:14–15 “natural
man” is set over
against
“spiritual man”
(see RSV).
Within this
context the
natural man is
one who does not
accept the
things that come
from the spirit
of God (1 Cor
2:14). Rather,
these things are
“foolishness” to
him. He cannot
understand them
because they are
“spiritually
discerned.” This
foolishness is
the foolishness
of unbelief
(1:21), and the
discernment
lacking is
insight produced
only by the Holy
Spirit. Plainly,
Paul has in view
someone utterly
without and even
opposed to the
Holy Spirit and
God’s revealed
truth.
In 1 Corinthians
15:44–46, the
contrast between
spiritual and
natural occurs
in a different
context—that of
the “body” in
death as
compared to the
“body” in
resurrection.
The body of the
believer laid in
the grave
(“sown”) is a
natural body (v
44a). The body
of the believer
raised from the
dead will be a
spiritual body,
that is, a body
renewed and
transformed by
the Holy Spirit
(Rom 8:11). In 1
Corinthians
15:44b and 45a,
however, the
natural body is
traced back by
appeal to
Genesis 2:7 to
Adam before the
fall, at
Creation. This
shows that
biblically what
is natural
refers to the
Creation.
Originally, as
created by God,
the “natural”
was “very good”
(Gn 1:31) but
subsequently it
has been
subjected to
corruption and
death by the sin
of man.
Therefore, the
sinful rebellion
of the natural
man, measured by
the original
creation, is
thoroughly
unnatural and
abnormal. The
opposing work of
the Holy Spirit
now, in Christ,
not only removes
this abnormality
but brings the
original
purposes of
Creation to
their
consummation
(Rom 8:19–22; 2
Cor 5:17)...
MAN, OLD AND NEW
Biblical terms
used to describe
the state of man
in relation to
Christ. Human
beings are
created in the
image of God and
are made to have
fellowship with
him (Gn
1:26–27). God
made known to
Adam and Eve his
will in a
specific
situation
(2:15–17), yet
they used the
freedom of their
will to disobey
God’s command
(3:1–7). So the
human race is
dead in sin (Rom
5:12–21; Eph
2:1–3). The sin
of Adam and Eve
has been passed
on to all
humanity
(original sin).
Born with the
tendency toward
sin (Ps 51:5),
as soon as the
age of moral
responsibility
is reached,
individuals
begin to commit
their own sins.
Paul uses the
term “old man”
to refer to this
condition. The
old man can keep
certain parts of
the law and do
various good
things. But no
old man can ever
do enough good
things to earn
his own
salvation. The
old man must be
made into a new
man or he will
suffer the
consequences of
his sin. Only
God can bring
about that
radical change.
Human beings can
only accept by
faith God’s
gracious gift.
David, in Psalm
51, cries out
for God to take
away the guilt
of his sins. In
verse 10 he
pleads, “Create
in me a clean
heart, O God,
and put a new
and right spirit
within me”
(RSV). God
promises in
Ezekiel 11:19,
18:31, and 36:26
to give
repentant
sinners a new
heart and a new
spirit. In
Romans 6:5–11
Paul shows how
the old nature
has been
crucified with
Christ, so he
can conclude,
“So you also
must consider
yourselves dead
to sin and alive
to God in Christ
Jesus” (6:11).
In Ephesians
4:22–24 and
Colossians
3:9–10 he shows
the believer
that he has put
off the old man
and put on the
new man. Jesus
speaks of this
radical
transformation
as being born
anew—not a
second physical
birth, as
Nicodemus
thought, but a
spiritual birth
(Jn 3:6). Only
the grace of God
can change the
old man into the
new man. The old
man accepts
God’s gracious
gift by faith,
but even that
faith is a gift
of God (Eph
2:8). The new
man becomes a
child of God. He
does not
immediately
become perfect.
He must fight
against sin
throughout this
life as he
strives to come
closer and
closer to the
ideal of perfect
holiness. He
will attain that
perfection only
in the
resurrection to
come (1 Cor
15:42–45), when
all things are
made new (Rv
21:5).
Elwell, W. A., &
Comfort, P. W.
(2001). Tyndale
Bible
dictionary.
Tyndale
reference
library (852).
Wheaton, IL:
Tyndale House
Publishers.